Soulmate Gem
Soulmate Gem
Photo: Leeloo Thefirst
The tongue, lips, and fingertips are the most touch- sensitive parts of the body, the trunk the least. Each fingertip has more than 3,000 touch receptors, many of which respond primarily to pressure.
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Read More »How far apart do the points have to be before you feel them as two distinct points? (That means, being in two different neural fields.) For most people, on the wrist it's about an inch. On the back, far more. On the finger, less. And the lip and tongue, believe it or not, have nearly twice the spatial acuity of the finger. Ongoing research by Robert Van Boven, a student of Ken Johnson's, uses a more precise and reliable acuity test in which people are asked to tell which way the bars run--horizontal or vertical--on a small grating. Using a finger, people can perform the task once the bars are .94 mm. apart (1 mm. = .04"). But the tongue has a threshold of .58 mm, and the lip is even more finely tuned--its acuity is sensitive to just .51 mm. Accordingly, in the part of the brain where raw sensory input first reaches the cortex, the patch devoted to neurons from the tongue is comparatively large. Since this intake structure has a specific zone for every body part, it is sometimes called the "homunculus" (little man), in reference to old beliefs that little men resided in each human head, to make decisions, feel emotions, and so on. Lying about midway between the front of each ear and the crown of the head, on the outermost layer of the brain, this homunculus (really, the postcentral gyrus of the parietal cortex) was mapped at Hopkins some 60 years ago. Several similar homunculi have since been discovered, including one for the motor cortex. When you touch something, what happens in the skin and homunculus is fairly straightforward: neurons fire. But what happens deeper in the brain is mysterious indeed. Take the simplest possible example--you are stroking your finger across a rather large A, which is raised as in braille. And you are going to recognize it as A, with no peeking. As you stroke, the skin is indented, just ever so slightly, as it passes over the A. That causes several hundred neurons to fire, each one reporting pressure as a bit of the letter passes through its neural field. Johnson, Hsiao and colleagues can record these images from tiny probes in the wrist, with results that look like those above. The nervous system is so well organized that all the information from one finger, or one part of one finger, stays together, and the "picture" of A travels up the nerve fiber through the arm. "It's the hand as eye," says Johnson. "You probably know that when the cones and rods in your retina fire, they produce a recognizable picture of whatever you're looking at? Well, this is like that. The finger sends off to the brain a picture that is exactly like the object itself. We call it isomorphic." (Iso = same, morphic = form.) The flood of coherent signal goes to the spinal cord and is relayed to the brain stem, then the thalamus, and finally reaches the cerebral cortex for processing.
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Read More »Finally, by the way, is the accurate word. "You can run faster than some nerve fibers transmit," says Johnson (meaning pain and thermal ones). "In the brain, touch signals can move anywhere from one foot a second to 200 feet a second. Computers transmit much, much faster. Yet we recognize pattern in three to four tenths of a second," which the computer cannot. In the end, says Johnson, "It's the brain that is fast." "A!" it says. "Oh, that's easy--A!" The mystery is, when the A image first reaches the cerebral cortex, neural recordings show it still looks like an A. But as sensory impulses fan out to deeper parts of the brain, they become more and more abstracted. Deep neural readouts, when they can be obtained, look chaotic. "How do we know whether we're touching an A or a B?" says Johnson. "The image must be stored in memory. The brain must compare it with others and say aha! that matches A!--that's pattern-recognition. People do it magnificently. Machines do not." In some way, says Johnson, the very abstractedness of memory's template must be what makes it work. It's an all-purpose tool. Machines, by contrast, get hung up on all the thousands of differences among As: where the letter is placed on the paper, for instance. Whether it's drawn by you, me, your first-grader, or a type-setting machine. Whether it's big or little. Whether it's crooked. Whether the paper is dirty. Whether the A has big curlicues, little ones, or none, or is printed on top of some other letter. Not us: A-ness, sandpaper, fine flour, baby rump, Nylon carpet, your hair as opposed to anyone else's hair--we humans can touch and know such patterns, it seems, in an instant. And we can do it even in variations we have never encountered, thanks to those abstracted templates. "The moment we understand how we do that," says Johnson, "--like understanding DNA--we will understand the brain at an entirely new level."
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