Photo: John Diez

Can a female reproduce without a male?

3.2 Parthenogenesis True parthenogenesis (Greek for “virgin birth”) is a form of asexual reproduction in which the production of offspring occurs in the absence of any male genetic contribution. Females produce unfertilized eggs that will develop into viable embryos (Neaves and Baumann, 2011).

sciencedirect.com - Parthenogenesis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

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Parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis is the development of a new offspring from an unfertilized egg. Parthenogenetic lineages occur in many insect species, but are widespread among other invertebrate taxa (Table 1). It entails modification or absence of meiosis so that the eggs remain diploid and do not have to fuse with sperm to give rise to a diploid zygote. This kind of parthenogenesis is termed as apomictic, which produces genetically identical modules of the same genet (typical asexual reproduction). In contrast, automixis (meiotic parthenogenesis) restores diploidy by the fusion of the egg with the second polar body (e.g., free-living nematode, Rhabditis). Obviously, the resultant modules may not be the exact genetic replicates of the mother. In insects, parthenogenesis may be thelytokous (female producing), arrhenotokous (male producing) or amphitokous (producing either sex). Haploid parthenogenesis is a special case in which the oocytes undergo regular meiotic division. If the eggs are fertilized, the offspring is a female, and if the eggs remain unfertilized, then parthenogenetic development results in a male offspring, which is haploid in its somatic tissues (e.g., the haplodiploid Hymenopteran insects). In social insects like the subterranean termite, Reticuliter messperatus, the queens produce new queens asexually by thelytokous parthenogenesis, but produce other colony members (workers and soldiers) by sexual reproduction. The parthenogenetic production of these new queens is achieved by the closing of the egg’s micropyle (sperm gates) to prevent sperm entry. Yet another type, namely obligate parthenogenesis, occurs in bdelloid rotifers, in which sexual reproduction never takes place due to the lack of males in the population. In the cladoceran rotifers and aphid insects, parthenogenesis occurs cyclically together with bouts of sexual reproduction. This is called cyclical parthenogenesis. In Daphnia, parthenogenetic reproduction takes place for one to several generations during favourable conditions, followed by sexual reproduction under unfavourable environments. The sexually produced long-lived dormant eggs hatch once favourable conditions return. By this alternation of generations, favourable environmental conditions can be exploited to increase the number of offspring by parthenogenetic reproduction, whereas the periodical appearance of one or more sexual generations will ensure genetic advantages such as increased heterosis, and re-assortment of genetic characters.

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Do twins always skip a generation?

Many people believe twins skip a generation, but that's just a myth. The idea that twins skip generations likely comes from the fact that the genetic factors contributing to twins only come from the gestational parent's side.

webmd.com - Do Twins Run in Families? What to Know About the Heredity of Twins

Twins are fascinating and are the subject of many old-wives-tales. If you have a set of twins in your family, a relative may have told you that you have a higher chance of having twins — but do twins really run in families? As it turns out, some types of twins are hereditary. Suppose you're a gestational parent and a close relative (like a parent or sibling) has fraternal (non-identical) twins. In that case, you're twice as likely to have twins yourself. Read on to learn what you need to know about the heredity of having twins. What Causes Twins? There are two basic types of twins — fraternal (or dizygotic) and identical (or monozygotic) twins. Fraternal Twins Fraternal twins come from two separate eggs that two different sperm fertilize. Fraternal twins have separate amniotic sacs and placentas. Fraternal twins are the most common type of twin. Fraternal twins account for 70% of all spontaneous twin pregnancies. Fraternal twins can have different sexes and appearances and are no more genetically related than any other siblings with the same parents.

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